مقدمة ابن خلدون باللغة الانجليزية

تعبير برجراف مقال  نبدة سيرة انشاء تقرير موضوع برزنتيشن فقرة

،بحث كامل نبذة عن العالم قصة حياة معلومات بالانجليزي من هو مؤلفات انجازات فلسفة بحث جاهز باللغة الانجليزية علماء عرب .. أبرز كتب ومؤلفات The story

بحث نشأة وحياته  علوم العلوم الفلكية  علم الأحياء  علم النبات  الفلسفة ومترجم موضوع انجليزي عن عالم مشهور موضوع انجليزي عن العالم  معلومات مختصرة موضوع تعبير عن شخص مشهور بالانجليزي قصير تعبير عن قدوتي  معلومة عن مختصرة

الكتب انجازات وفاة  مسيرته حياته علمه تلامذته

ابن خلدون هو عبد الرحمن بن محمد، ابن خلدون أبو زيد، ولي الدين الحضرمي الإشبيلي (1332 - 1406م، ولد في تونس وشب فيها وتخرّج من جامعة الزيتونة، وليَ الكتابة والوساطة بين الملوك في بلاد المغرب والأندلس ابن خلدون مؤرخ من شمال أفريقيا، تونسي المولد أندلسي حضرمي الأصل، كما عاش بعد تخرجه من جامعة الزيتونة في مختلف مدن شمال أفريقيا، حيث رحل إلى بسكرة وغرناطة وبجاية وتلمسان

 ابن خلدون بحث مؤلفات ابن خلدون كتب من هو ابن خلدون وفاة  محمد بن خلدون الحضرمي ابن خلدون اقوال نشأة ابن خلدون العلمية  تأسيس ابن خلدون لعلم الاجتماع

مقدمة ابن خلدون مؤسس علم الإجتماع عالم مسلم

Excerpt from Ibn Khaldûn's Muqaddima

This text is taken from Ibn Khaldûn's Muqaddima (Discourse on Universal History), translated by Vincent Monteil, ed. Sindbad, 1997.

The song (ghinâ ') is the musical arrangement (talḥîn) of verse chanted by cutting the sounds in regular and known proportions, so that each of them becomes a note (naghma). These notes then combine with each other in specific relationships, to pleasantly impress the ear with their harmony (tanâsub) and the quality of the sounds. Here is how: as explained in musical science (al-mashqa), there are, between the sounds, definite intervals - one perhaps half, quarter, fifth or eleventh of a other.

When these intervals reach the ear, they go from simple to complex. Now, any combination (tarkîb) is not pleasant to hear: only some are, which the musicologists have enumerated and described.

This modulation of the sung notes can be accompanied by other rhythmic sounds produced by percussion or wind instruments. The pleasure of the listener is increased. In the Maghreb, we use today several instruments. Such is the shabbâba, which is a species of flute (mizmâr) made of a reed pierced with holes. You breathe in, and the sound comes out through the holes. It is regulated by putting his fingers with both hands on its orifices, so as to produce the proper intervals between the notes and combine them harmoniously. It is this harmony that is pleasant to the ear. There is also the Haubois (zulâmî), which is a reed formed of two pieces of wood dug and assembled, with many holes. We breathe in through a small pipe and we get a piercing sound. We play with his fingers placed on the holes, as for the shabbba.

One of the best wind instruments today is the whelk (buq). It is a hollow copper pipe, one cubit long, with a flared opening, whose diameter is narrower than the hand. One breathes in by a narrow neck, which produces a deep and strong sound. It also has several holes, and it is played by placing his fingers on it, which gives pleasant tunes.

There are also stringed instruments, which are hollow inside. They may be in a sphere segment, such as the barbiton (barbaṭ) or the rebec (rabâb), or square, like the tympanon (qânûn). The strings are fixed on the flat of the instrument, with movable ankles (dasâtîr), which allow to release them or stretch them. They are struck with a wooden plectrum, or a bow made of another rope tied to the ends of an arch and rubbed with wax or resin (kundur). The notes are formed by varying the pressure of the hand that guides the bow, or by passing it from one rope to the other. Moreover, in all stringed instruments, one can use the fingers of the left hand to act on the ends of the strings and draw harmonious and pleasant sounds. One can still beat copper drums with chopsticks, or rattle pieces of wood to indicate the rhythm. all this gives rise to musical pleasure.

In what ways? We know that pleasure (ladhdha) consists in obtaining something pleasant. It is a question of perception (idrâk) particular sensory: pleasant, if it is harmonious and suitable; unpleasant, if incompatible or discordant. This is how a food is delicious, if its quality is related to the sense of taste. It is the same for the touch. Sweet perfumes are those which correspond to the vapors of the cordial spirit (qalbi), to whom transmits the sense of smell. The plants and the fragrant flowers are more pleasant to breathe, because their dominant heat is the mood of the cordial spirit. In the same way, the pleasant impressions of sight and hearing are caused by harmonious forms and modalities.

It is a visible object of harmonious forms, in close connection with the material of which it is made: it will express beauty and pleasure and will produce, on the person who perceives it, a feeling of pleasure. This is why great lovers say that their minds merge with that of the beloved object. This is the idea expressed by philosophers, saying that existence (wujûd) is shared by all that exists (al-mawjûdât). What makes everyone want to join in everything that seems perfect.

As the human body is what is most sensitive to man, and the object whose beauty of proportion is most easily grasped, it is in the lines and sounds of the human voice that he will find the highest aesthetic feeling. It is in the nature of man to seek beauty in what he sees and what he listens to. In the ear, all beauty is born of harmony and harmony between sounds. Indeed, the sounds have several timbres. They may be low or high, soft or strong, vibrating or muffled, etc. Their harmony (tanâsub) is what produces beauty. First, the passage must be made, not abruptly, but gradually, from one determined sound to another - different or similar: the interval between them must be bridged. It is in music as for language, which does not tolerate combinations of discordant or too close sounds. On the other hand, the sounds must be separated by harmonious intervals - to be able to pass from one to its half, third, or any other fraction without hindrance. The musicologists have established the rules, according to which the sounds are harmonious and pleasant.

The musical harmony can be simple. Many people are good at perceiving it and do not need any particular instruction. Some have the innate sense of the measure of verse, others immediately capture the rhythm of a dance. It is commonly said that they have (the ear for) the "merry-go-round" (miḍmâr). This is the case of the readers of the Koran, who chanted it by modulating their voices like a flute: their flow is so harmonious that they are listened to with rapture.

Harmony can also be the result of musical composition (tarkîb), which is not within the reach of everyone, no more in theory than in practice. It is the art of melody (talḥîn) which is part of music: we will deal with it in the chapter of sciences.

Imam Malik disapproves of "singing" the Qur'an, which Imam Ash-Shâfici allows. But this is not the art (profane) of the musical melody, which is certainly unanimously defended, as having nothing in common with the Koran. Indeed, to read the Quran aloud, it is necessary to spare one's breath in order to lengthen the vowels or not - which is also the case for singing. But the two things are incompatible. The recitation of the Qur'an must come first, to avoid any risk of altering the ancient tradition. It is therefore quite impossible to combine, for the Qur'an, the melody with the articulation proportionally said. If there is disagreement on this point, it is only with regard to the readers who have the right ear: can they recite the sacred text by printing at their voice certain harmonious cadences, which will sound like the music to the ear of experts as ignorant? This is precisely what we are discussing. It is obvious that we should refrain and that Imam Malik is right. Because the Koran is a formidable book, reminding man of the memory of death and the afterlife. It should not be an excuse to make beautiful music. It is with fear that the Companions of the Prophet recited it, as we learn from their story. If Muhammad once said, "He has received one of the mizmaz flutes from David's family," he did not mean to refer to instrumental music, but only to the beautiful voice of a reader of the Qur'an, its correct pronunciation, with its clear articulation and well detached.

Now that we have seen what song is about, it must be said that in a civilized society there is a certain degree of prosperity when people move from the subsistence economy to the satisfaction and diversification of the superfluous. . So, the art of singing is an object sought after by those who no longer have to worry about making a living or providing for housing, but are free-spirited and think only of their pleasures. Before Islam, among foreign nations, music was in great honor in the towns, especially in the court of princes. The kings of Persia were very interested in the musicians whom they received in their entourage, admitted to their meetings, and had them sing. Even today, this is what is done everywhere, among all foreigners.