الحضارة السومرية بالانجليزي

الحضارة السومرية بالانجليزي

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Sumer Arabic Meanings: منطقة سومر. مكان الحضارة السّامرية - ...

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Sumer is a region in the extreme south of ancient Mesopotamia (present-day Iraq), covering a vast plain traversed by the Tigris and the Euphrates, bordered to the southeast by the Persian Gulf. An important civilization developed there from the end of the 4th millennium BC. J. C. and during the third millennium BC. There are several major phases in the history of Southern Mesopotamia: the final Uruk period (c. 3400-3100 BC), the period of the archaic dynasties (c. 2900 - 2340 BC). The empire of Akkad (c.2340-2190 BC) and the third dynasty of Ur (c.21212 - 2004 BC). Sumer's recent syntheses tend, for these periods, to cover the entire history of Lower Mesopotamia, without stopping in the Sumerian country stricto sensu.

Completely forgotten after the beginnings of our era, the civilization of Sumer was rediscovered during the second half of the nineteenth century thanks to excavations of archaeological sites of the southern Mesopotamian. These continued before being stopped because of the wars that affected Iraq from the 1990s. In addition to often remarkable architectural and artistic works, they have uncovered tens of thousands of writing tablets cuneiform, which constitute the earliest written documentation known with that of ancient Egypt, and make of Sumer one of the most ancient historical civilizations known. She developed her writing system during the last centuries of the 4th millennium BC. J. C. The Sumerian does not belong to any known language family. The speakers of this language, mostly located in the country of Sumer, were called "Sumerians" by the researchers who discovered it, but it does not appear that an equivalent denomination existed in antiquity.

The analysis of this documentation showed that the Sumerians had a great influence on the ancient civilizations that followed theirs, especially those of Mesopotamia. Even though they were not the only protagonists, the Sumerians played a decisive role in the establishment of the Mesopotamian civilization. In particular, they contributed to the emergence of the first States with their complex institutions and administrations, to the development of the first urban societies and to the development of different techniques in the fields of agriculture, construction, metallurgy and trade. Finally, they participated in the implementation of counting systems that influenced posterior cultures.

History

The history of Sumer is divided into several successive periods:

• the period of final Uruk (around 3400 - 3100 BC), which is very innovative, which sees the characteristic elements of the ancient Mesopotamian civilization set up;

• the short period of Djemdet Nasr (circa 3100 - 2900 BC);

• the period of the archaic dynasties (around 2900 - 2340 BC), marked by the division of the country of Sumer between several city-states;

• the empire of Akkad (c. 2340 - 2190 BC), the first unification of Mesopotamia, by a non-Sumerian dynasty;

• the "neo-Sumerian" period, especially covered by the new unification under the third Ur dynasty (circa 2112 - 2004 BC).

Political history is especially well known from 2400 BC. Since the documentation is too limited for earlier periods. Nevertheless, it is impossible to answer many questions about the chain of events observed and their dating, which remains very approximate.

The earliest traces of settlement in Lower Mesopotamia date back to the second half of the seventh millennium BC. J. C., and are attested on the site of Tell el-Oueilli. This one presents the first developments of the culture of the Obeid period, usually divided into five phases extending approximately on the 6th millennium BC. J. C. and the fifth millennium BC. J. C. The most important site of this period is Eridu, where several successive levels of a monumental building have been identified. This period would see the emergence of chiefdoms dominating farmer communities and practicing long-distance, albeit still limited, exchanges27,28,29.

During the period of Uruk (4th millennium BC), especially its final phase (around 3400-3100 BC), the evolution of society led to the appearance of the first states and the first cities, 31. The monuments uncovered in Uruk illustrate the richness and creativity of Lower Mesopotamia of this period, which exerted an important influence on the neighboring regions and perhaps a first form of imperialism (Writing appeared there during the last centuries of the period of Uruk.

As things stand, it is impossible to establish with certainty what role the Sumerians played in these societies. The archaeological documentation does not allow to attribute these phases to an ethnic group, and there is no consensus as to whether the earliest written texts contain traces of Sumerian. The origin of the Sumerians is thus the object of two opposite approaches:

• A first hypothesis calls the Sumerians from a neighboring region of Lower Mesopotamia; they would therefore be an element external to the latter, and would not necessarily participate in the first periods of development of the societies of the Mesopotamian delta. Several dates were then put forward for the arrival of the Sumerians in the region. They could be present from the Obeid period, among other groups of populations, or they could only have arrived at the beginning of the third millennium. J. C., when the texts contain unambiguous possible Sumerian grammatical elements34,35.

• An opposite hypothesis situates the ethnogenesis of the Sumerians in the Lower Mesopotamia of the beginnings of the Obeid period. The different heterogeneous communities of the deltaic plain would have gradually merged to form an ethnic group: the Sumerians36,37,38.

However, it is generally accepted that the Sumerians were already present in Lower Mesopotamia during the Uruk period. They would then have been a driving force or at least would have participated in the creation of the first states, the first cities, the first form of writing and settlement enterprises in neighboring countries during the Uruk period. But in all likelihood it must be admitted that Lower Mesopotamia was already a polyglot, and therefore multi-ethnic, society in which the Sumerian, Semitic and other elements lived in harmony. This is particularly evident from the presence in ancient texts of terms apparently derived from unknown languages, notably in toponymy. Some saw it as a "pre-Sumerian substratum" prior to the Sumerians' settlement in the region, but this seems to have resulted from the linguistic diversity and fluidity that existed from the earliest times.